Non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA) is the most severe form of male infertility, characterized by defective spermatogenesis and a complete absence of sperm in the ejaculate. Biological fatherhood for affected patients relies on identifying rare foci of active spermatogenesis within the testes through microdissection testicular sperm extraction (micro-TESE) which is the current gold standard approach. Optimizing sperm retrieval is challenging since success depends on both surgical precision and laboratory detection accuracy. Artificial intelligence (AI) has recently emerged as a promising tool to improve these processes. A comprehensive literature review of recent studies was performed to assess how AI is being applied in NOA management. Research using machine learning (ML) and convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for sperm detection, prediction of successful retrieval, and diagnostic classification was analyzed. Emphasis was placed on model accuracy, clinical feasibility, and integration into current surgical and laboratory workflows. AI-based image recognition systems show strong accuracy in identifying rare sperm within the complex surrounding cellular environment. These tools minimize operator fatigue, enhance detection speed, and ensure greater level of consistency across laboratories. Early studies indicate that AI-assisted methods outperform manual identification by offering faster and more reliable results. Furthermore, predictive AI models are being developed to estimate sperm retrieval outcomes and support patient selection. Integrating AI into surgical and laboratory practice has the potential to reduce subjectivity and inefficiency in NOA management by offering more objectivity in the process of sperm identification and outcome prediction, in addition to delivering a personalized, data-driven reproductive care. Continued clinical validation and ethical oversight will be essential before these technologies can be fully adopted in reproductive medicine.
The world journal of men's health. 2026 Mar 17 [Epub ahead of print]
Hussein Kandil, Mohamed Arafa, Coşkun Kaya, Christine Wyns, Tan V Le, Taha Hamoda, Ramadan Saleh, Ayad Palani, Selahittin Çayan, Rossella Cannarella, Germar-Michael Pinggera, Walter D Cardona Maya, Quang Nguyen, Mohammed Abdulgabbar Noman, Ashok Agarwal
Global Andrology Forum, Global Andrology Foundation, Moreland Hills, OH, USA.