Nephrolithiasis (kidney stone disease) continues to pose a significant global health challenge, affecting millions of individuals and placing substantial economic pressures on healthcare systems. Traditional diagnostic methods-such as computed tomography (CT), ultrasound, and basic urinalysis-are often limited by issues including radiation exposure, lower sensitivity in detecting small stones, operator dependency, and the inability to provide real-time analysis. In response, electrochemical sensors have emerged as innovative and powerful tools capable of the rapid, sensitive, and specific detection of key biomarkers associated with nephrolithiasis. This review highlights the advances in electrochemical approaches for monitoring oxalate and uric acid, the two primary metabolites implicated in kidney stone formation. We discuss the principles of electrode design and fabrication, including nanomaterial integration, 3D printing, and molecular imprinting, which have markedly improved detection limits and selectivity. Furthermore, we critically evaluate the practical challenges-such as sensor fouling, reproducibility, and stability in complex biological matrices-that currently impede widespread clinical implementation. The potentials for miniaturization and point-of-care integration are emphasized, with an eye toward continuous or home-based monitoring systems that can offer personalized insights into risk of stone formation and progression. By consolidating recent findings and exploring future trends in multi-analyte detection and wearable diagnostics, this review provides a roadmap for translating electrochemical sensors from research laboratories to routine clinical practice, ultimately aiming to enhance early intervention and improve patient outcomes in nephrolithiasis.
Sensors (Basel, Switzerland). 2025 Apr 17*** epublish ***
Kaiqiang Sun, Ningbin Zhao, Peizheng Shi, Zhuang Sun, Chen Ye, Li Fu, Dan Dai, Wubo Chu, Tao Cai, Hsu-Sheng Tsai, Cheng-Te Lin
School of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China., Qianwan Institute, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering (NlMTE), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China., College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, China., Laboratory for Space Environment and Physical Sciences, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China., State Key Laboratory of Advanced Marine Materials, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering (NIMTE), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China.